Gender bias in Qur’anic interpretation: Mechanisms, barriers, and opportunities for inclusive readings

Interpretations of Qur’anic verses concerning gender relations may be shaped by interpreters’ social assumptions, while efforts to develop inclusive readings face institutional barriers. This study examines how conclusions about gender relations are constructed in the literature on Qur’an 4:34, 4:11, and 4:3, identifies mechanisms through which gender bias may arise, and maps the challenges and opportunities associated with inclusive interpretation. It employs a structured literature review, thematic synthesis, and hermeneutical analysis guided by Amina Wadud’s framework, which considers the context of a verse, its language and textual structure, and its relationship to other Qur’anic verses. The findings indicate that reading Qur’an 4:34 alongside 49:13 allows for an understanding of familial responsibility without establishing male superiority. Gender bias may arise when qawwāmūna is generalized into a claim of male authority, assumptions of gender hierarchy are imposed on the text, or context and intertextual relationships are neglected. Inclusive interpretation also faces resistance, legal and institutional barriers, and limited access for women; education, women’s participation, digital media, and international collaboration provide opportunities for broader discussion. The study concludes that potential bias must be examined within the interpretive process while accounting for the social conditions that shape the reception of interpretations. Its contribution lies in connecting an analysis of bias-producing mechanisms with a mapping of the barriers and opportunities for inclusive readings, without assuming that the effectiveness of those opportunities has been established.